Ecology and Evolutionary Biology

Principles and concepts of evolution and ecology related to origins of adaptation and biodiversity. Mechanisms and processes driving biological diversification illustrated from various perspectives using empirical and theoretical approaches. Topics include: genetic diversity, natural selection, speciation, physiological, population, and community ecology, maintenance of species diversity, conservation, species extinction, global environmental change, and invasion biology. A lab coat is required and the cost is approximately $16 if students wish to purchase it through the Department. (Lab Materials Fee: $25)

Most of us are urban creatures, but we as people are not the only urban creatures. In this seminar we will explore the diversity of animal and plant species comprising the ecological community that we call “Toronto”. We will learn their names, whether they are endemic (from here originally) or newcomers, general aspects of their biology that suit them to living in an urban environment, how natural selection shapes the traits similarly and differently for species in urban versus wilderness settings, and what happens when the wild and the domesticated members of the community meet one another. For non-science students in all years and disciplines. Restricted to first-year students. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

In this course you will experience the new paradigm in behaviour genetic research. You will learn why the concept of a nature-nurture dichotomy is passé and that it has been replaced by a new understanding gained from animal and human research in the areas of gene by environment interaction and epigenetics. We will discuss how our genome listens to our environment and the effect this has on our health and behaviour. We will learn why our early experiences are critical for the development of our brains and our bodies. Together this new body of knowledge will help us understand how individual differences in behaviour and health arise. For non-science students in all years and disciplines. Restricted to first-year students. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

Learn about the evolution and ecology of humans and other species. Through discussion, scientific literature research, seminal readings, written reports and presentations you will discover scientific answers to questions such as (topics vary among years): How did life originate? Why are there so many species? Where did humans come from? Will humans become extinct? How can we explain human DNA and human brain size? Need we worry about climate change? What is causing the sixth extinction crisis? Are there ecological limits to human population size? What will life be like in the Anthropocene? Are humans still evolving? For non-science students in all years and disciplines. Restricted to first-year students.  Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

The importance of plants to society. Topics include: plant biology, domestication of crop plants, plant breeding and genetic engineering, biological invasions, conservation, biodiversity and genetic resources, ecological implications of advances in modern plant science, macroevolution of plants, forest utilization. For non-science students in all years and disciplines.

An introduction to the diversity of Earth’s aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs, lakes, tropical rainforests); the history of industrialization and human population growth; how the human footprint impacts ecosystems (e.g., ecosystem function, biological diversity); and strategies to maintain, recover and restore ecosystems. This is a course for non-science students in all years and disciplines. For non-science students in all years and disciplines.

Evolution and adaptation of life on Earth. Introduction to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Topics may include: evidence supporting the fact of evolution, and how evolutionary theory can help explain the world around us, such as how species are formed, and the evolution of sex, infanticide, and disease. For non-science students in all years and disciplines. For non-science students in all years and disciplines.

Introduction to the scientific discipline that deals with threatened species and habitats. Topics include: biodiversity, extinction, threats, demography, genetic diversity, protecting, managing and restoring ecosystems (e.g., nature reserves, captive breeding, conservation corridors), sustainable development, and global warming. Ties between the study of conservation biology and environmental law, economics, and policy will also be covered. For non-science students in all years and disciplines. For non-science students in all years and disciplines.

Dynamics of genetic and ecological change in biological systems, from genomes to ecosystems. Evolutionary genetic and ecological perspectives on wide-ranging topics including disease, aging, sexual conflict, genetics of human differences, conservation, and global climate change. Applications of evolutionary, ecological, and molecular-genetic principles and processes. Responsibilities of human societies in a changing world. (Lab Materials Fee: $25).

A statistics course designed especially for life science students, using examples from ecology and evolution where appropriate. Students learn to choose and use statistics that are appropriate to address relevant biological questions and hypotheses. Lectures and computer labs will be used to cover the following methods: sampling and experimental design, data exploration, correlation, regression, ANOVA, Chi-square, and non-parametric tests.

This multidisciplinary course draws on elements from geology, soil science, and ecology to understand past and present environments and human impacts on landscapes and ecosystems. Emphasis on the structure, functioning and connectivity of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Field trips and labs. Mandatory day-long field trip on a Friday or Saturday in late September or early October (students choose which day; a small fee may be charged for transportation.) (Lab Materials Fee: $25)

Introduction to structure, function, and ecology of vegetative and reproductive processes in plants with a focus on flowering plants and gymnosperms. Lectures and labs emphasize photosynthesis, respiration, mineral nutrition, transport processes, patterns of plant growth and development, the role of hormones in development, photomorphogenesis, and plant reproduction. (Lab Materials Fee: $25).

“Classical” and “new” concepts in biodiversity and conservation. Topics may include: evolution and ecology in the past (Holocene) and future (Anthropocene); levels and kinds of biodiversity; valuing biodiversity through ecological economics; causes of endangerment; predicting extinction; genetic and demographic theory; habitat protection and captive breeding; conservation policies and endangered species acts; designing future biodiversity.

The ontogeny and phylogeny of vertebrate structure are considered within the context of evolutionary theory. Functional aspects of the various organ systems are examined. Representative vertebrates are analyzed (with brief dissection of some forms) in laboratory to illustrate selected anatomical features and to provide practical exposure to vertebrate construction. (Lab Materials Fee: $25)

The diversity of invertebrates (e.g. sponges, jellyfish, flatworms, molluscs, segmented worms, round worms, arthropods, echinoderms and several smaller phyla) is explored, focusing on taxonomic characters that define each group and their placement in the evolutionary tree of life, ecological function, biological requirements, and geographical distribution. Labs emphasize identification and recognition of major groups, including dissection when appropriate. (Lab Materials Fee: $25)

Introduction to the diversity of chordate animals (vertebrates, tunicates, and lancelets), focusing on morphological, physiological, ecological and behavioural traits that make each group special and how those traits increase vulnerability to human-based exploitation. Labs involve living organisms whenever possible, but only for display purposes.

Introduction to the biology of algae, fungi, and land plants. Lectures and labs emphasize the diversity of organisms with a focus on life cycles, ecology, and evolution. (Lab Materials Fee: $25)

Credit course for supervised participation in faculty research project. Details at https://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/current/academics/research-opportunities/research-opportunities-program. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

The quantitative analysis and management of biological data is crucial in modern life sciences disciplines. Students will develop skills with R as applied to problems in ecology and evolutionary biology to learn reproducible approaches for data management, data manipulation, visualization, modelling, statistical analysis, and simulation for solving biological problems.

Principles and practice of evolutionary biology since Darwin. Topics may include: phylogeny, speciation, mutation and neutral evolution, population genetic variation, quantitative genetics, molecular evolution, natural selection and adaptation, evolutionary conflict and cooperation, and levels of selection.

Abundance and distribution of populations; population growth and regulation; fluctuations, stochasticity and chaos; meta-population persistence and extinction; age and stage-structured populations; interactions within and between species; optimal harvesting; spread of infectious diseases. Labs include experiments and computer simulations. (Lab materials fee: $25)

This course explores the relationships and feedback between biological communities and the abiotic factors of ecosystems. The course will cover the biogeochemical dynamics of energy and nutrients through ecosystem development and the effects of global change on these processes. The lab component of the course will apply lecture concepts and tools to specific case studies.

Nature and analysis of community structure; disturbance and community development; species interactions; community assembly processes.  Computer exercises in weekly labs provide training in sampling, simulation, and data analysis.

A broad introduction to animal behaviour emphasizing concepts from ethology and behavioural ecology, including foraging, predation, mating systems, parental care and behaviour genetics. Field and laboratory studies are undertaken. (Lab Materials Fee: $25; Lab Manual Fee: $10)

Evolutionary biology rests on a foundation of evolutionary genetics. This course focuses on the core ideas in population genetics and extends to evolutionary genomics. Students are exposed to the mathematical theory underlying evolutionary genetics and will learn the mathematical foundations underlying these ideas. Topics include the population genetics of mutation, migration, drift, and selection, analysis of sequence variation, and the evolution of sexual reproduction.

Empirical and theoretical approaches to key areas of research including natural selection, sexual selection, and life histories. Other topics may include phenotypic plasticity, speciation, co-evolution, and quantitative genetics.

How evolutionary principles can help us better understand health and disease. Concepts from evolutionary biology (e.g., life history theory, coevolution, genomic conflict, constraints and trade-offs) will be applied to key problems in medicine and public health, including antibiotic resistance, aging, cancer, autoimmune disease, and pathogen virulence. 

An advanced treatment of the physiological mechanisms controlling plant and animal distribution and ecological success. Topics of focus include photosynthesis and resource balance, water and nutrient relations, temperature effects, and adaptations to abiotic stress. A fee of approximately $15 may be charged for field trip transportation.

Topics include fungal systematics, morphology, physiology, and ecology. The roles of fungi in the environment and their importance to man. A weekend field trip explores the natural occurrence of fungi. Labs introduce the techniques used for morphological and molecular identification, and for isolation in pure culture. Students use fungal cultures to conduct an independent experimental research project. (Lab Materials Fee: $25). 

Applied issues in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, with an emphasis on land-use change and its impacts on watersheds. Topics include: ecology of agro-ecosystems and other human-managed ecosystems, bio-indicators of anthropogenic impacts, ecosystem restoration, and adaptive management. Group projects address local management/restoration issues.

The origin of land plants and the subsequent diversification of land plant vegetative and reproductive form and function. Discussions synthesize morphological and anatomical knowledge from living organisms and fossil records with cellular, physiological, and molecular information on the developmental "tool kit" of land plants and their ancestors throughout geological time. Topics address the evolution of vegetative and reproductive meristems; stem, leaf, and root architecture; vascular tissue; the ovule habit; fertilization processes; and pollination biology. (Lab Materials Fee: $25; Lab Manual Fee: $25)

Human genome diversity and evolution with a focus on current research. The course integrates applications of human evolutionary genomics to the understanding of human history and adaptation, the causes of disease, and genome structure and function. Topics include: comparative genomics, population genomics of adaptation, association mapping, repetitive/selfish DNA, and gene duplication.

An examination of major ideas about biological evolution from the 18th century to the 1930s and of their impact on scientific and social thought. Topics include the diversity of life and its classification, the adaptation of organisms to their environment, Wallace’s and Darwin’s views on evolution by natural selection, sexual selection, inheritance from Mendel to T.H. Morgan, eugenics, and the implications of evolution for religion, gender roles, and the organization of society. Offered by the Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology.

An examination of the place of the organism in evolutionary theory from the early 1900s to the present. Biology is the science of living things, and yet, paradoxically, living things--organisms--have been comprehensively left out of the Modern Synthesis theory of evolution that developed in the twentieth century. This course surveys the reasons--historical, philosophical and empirical--for the marginalisation of organisms from evolutionary theory. It examines the ways in which evolutionary developmental biology attempts to restore the organisms to a central place in evolutionary biology. Offered by faculty in the Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology.

Explores patterns and processes of large-scale evolutionary change, played out over large geographic expanses and extended periods of time. Integrates information from paleontology, phylogenetics, field studies, functional biology, and experiments to link emergent evolutionary patterns to underlying evolutionary processes. Topics include: speciation, phylogenetic inference, adaptive vs. non-adaptive evolution, evolutionary constraints, diversification and extinction, evolutionary innovations, historical biogeography, and the relationship between evolutionary history and ecology. Tutorials will illustrate common analytical approaches to macroevolutionary investigation and provide in-depth exploration of landmark studies in macroevolution.

Applied conservation biology including management (at the level of species/populations, environments/landscapes, and ecosystems) and how to conserve and maintain biodiversity and ecosystem function (including species and ecosystem distribution modelling).

Ecological interactions between organisms and their environment. Past and present changes in Earth’s environment and the human responses to those changes. Topics may include: Pleistocene glaciations, origins of agriculture, species extinctions, disease ecology, deforestation, water pollution, pesticides, and estrogenic compounds. (Note: EEB375H1 cannot substitute ENV234H1 to satisfy a program requirement.)

Evolutionary history, morphology, physiology, development, behaviour, and ecological significance of insects. Labs focus on identification of major groups of insects found in Ontario and each student makes an insect collection. Insects are collected during field trips during class time and also on Saturday field trips early in the term. A fee of approximately $25 may be charged for field trip transportation.

Systematics, morphology, ecology, behaviour, biogeography, and conservation of fishes. Identification of major groups of fish; what makes each group biologically special and how those unique traits might contribute to conservation concerns. Labs focus on exercises designed to highlight how ichthyologists actually do research. (Lab materials fee: $25)

Lectures and laboratories examine the natural history, morphology, behaviour, ecology, evolutionary relationships, and biogeography of amphibians (frogs and toads, salamanders, caecilians) and non-avian reptiles (turtles, the tuatara, lizards, snakes, and crocodilians). Ancillary fee of $25 to cover cost of arranging a live animal lab featuring living Ontario reptiles and amphibians. Students are also required to purchase a $25 lab manual.

Avian ecology, behaviour, conservation, and functional morphology and evolution of avian flight. Labs focus on avian anatomy and song analysis, and an outdoor activity introduces students to basic avian identification and compiling a field journal.

Lectures and laboratories examine the natural history, morphology, classification, evolutionary relationships, reproduction, biogeography, and conservation of mammals. Labs focus on the identification of mammals and their diverse morphological adaptations including mammals of Ontario. Lab manual fee: $25.

The evolutionary history of vertebrates is recorded in their fossil record. Lectures highlight the origin and radiation of major vertebrate clades, and emphasize key events in vertebrate history, notably major ecological and evolutionary transitions, and mass extinctions. Practicals (at the Royal Ontario Museum) explore fossils that exemplify these themes.

An intermediate research project requiring the prior consent of a member of the Department to supervise the project. The topic is to be one mutually agreed on by the student and supervisor. They must arrange the time, place, and provision of any materials and submit to the Undergraduate Office a signed form of agreement outlining details prior to being enrolled. This course is open to highly self-motivated students who are in their Third Year and have a strong interest in ecology and/or evolutionary biology. Students are required to write up the results of their research in a formal paper, often in the format of a research article, and may be required to present the results at a poster session and/or participate in an oral presentation. Students should contact their potential supervisors over the summer before classes begin in September. Information regarding how to register for the course is available on the EEB website. Not eligible for CR/NCR option. Note: cannot enrol if already taken the fourth year research project course EEB498Y1/EEB499Y1.

An instructor-supervised project in an off-campus setting. Details at https://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/current/academics/research-opportunities/research-excursions-program. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

An instructor-supervised group project in an off-campus setting. Details at: https://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/current/academics/research-opportunities/research-excursions-program. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

Credit course for supervised participation in faculty research project. Details at https://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/current/academics/research-opportunities/research-opportunities-program. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course introducing students to the diversity of biological communities in the tropics focusing on ecological and evolutionary interactions. Plant and animal communities of the New World tropics are compared and contrasted with temperate communities. Student research projects included. Fee for accommodations, food, within course travel, station fee, etc. will apply. See Departmental website for details. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course introducing students to the diversity of biological communities in the tropics focusing on ecological and evolutionary interactions. Plant and animal communities of the New World tropics are compared and contrasted with temperate communities. Student research projects included. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course offered (in May or August) at U of T’s Koffler Scientific Reserve, King City, Ontario. Students learn the natural history of the region and conduct a field-based research project in ecology or evolutionary biology. A fee of $720 for accommodations, food, within course travel, station fee, etc. will apply. See Departmental website for details. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course offered (in May or August) at U of T’s Koffler Scientific Reserve, King City, Ontario. Students learn the natural history of the region and conduct a field-based research project in ecology or evolutionary biology. A fee of $720 for accommodations, food, within course travel, station fee, etc. will apply. See Departmental website for details. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course offered between May and August by another Ontario university (to various locations) as part of the Ontario Universities Program in Field Biology (OUPFB). The selection of field course modules are announced in January. For registration information and additional fees information consult the EEB website; fees from $350-5000 will be applied for field trip costs. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course offered between May and August by another Ontario university (to various locations) as part of the Ontario Universities Program in Field Biology (OUPFB). The selection of field course modules are announced in January. For registration information and additional fees information consult the EEB website; fees from $350-5000 will be applied for field trip costs. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course at a high mountain field station in the summer. Students learn the natural history of alpine and subalpine biomes and investigate major abiotic and biotic interactions. Required projects catalogue natural diversity, examine species interactions, or assess abiotic influences and stresses on high-altitude organisms and their environment. (Offered occasionally.) Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course at a high mountain field station in the summer. Students learn the natural history of alpine and subalpine biomes and investigate major abiotic and biotic interactions. Required projects catalogue natural diversity, examine species interactions, or assess abiotic influences and stresses on high-altitude organisms and their environment. (Offered occasionally.) Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course in August (offered in alternate years) at the Harkness Fisheries Research Laboratory in Algonquin Park, Ontario. Field and laboratory exercises demonstrate how interactions between physical, chemical, and biological parameters are crucial in understanding lake ecosystems. Fundamental and applied issues are discussed. Students collect, analyse, and interpret data, and complete a class project and an individual project. A fee of $900 for accommodations, food, within course travel, station fee, etc. will apply. See Departmental website for details. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

A two-week field course in August (offered in alternate years) at the Harkness Fisheries Research Laboratory in Algonquin Park, Ontario. Field and laboratory exercises demonstrate how interactions between physical, chemical, and biological parameters are crucial in understanding lake ecosystems. Fundamental and applied issues are discussed. Students collect, analyse, and interpret data, and complete a class project and an individual project. A fee of $900 for accommodations, food, within course travel, station fee, etc. will apply. See Departmental website for details. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

An examination of organism, population, and ecosystem responses to long-term environmental change occurring at the global scale, with emphasis on human caused perturbation to climate and the carbon, nitrogen, and hydrolic cycles and their ecological effects.

Study of ecology and evolution uses models to explain biological phenomena including the maintenance of biodiversity, population growth, competition, eco-evolutionary dynamics, trait and molecular evolution, epidemiology, spatial ecology, phylogeny and extinction. Students will learn to develop, assess and apply analytical, simulation and statistical models for analysis and data interpretation.

The ecology of urban areas through consideration of the biological and physical environments, in particular how the human-constructed environment alters pre-existing biophysical conditions and interactions. Encompasses a comparative perspective to study the development of these emerging ecosystems of increasing importance given global urbanization. One or two Saturday field trips (a fee of approximately $15 may be charged for field trip transportation.)

Advanced study of ecological principles and applied issues in freshwater and marine systems. Lectures and student-led discussions will cover physical, chemical, and biological interactions, from microbes to marine mammals. Topics may include carbon and nutrient cycling, food webs & trophic downgrading, ocean acidification, hydrothermal vents & connectivity in the oceans, lake management.

Major concepts in ecology and evolution from the perspective of plant-animal interactions. The richness of interactions between plants and animals is explored including antagonistic interactions (e.g., herbivory, carnivorous plants), mutualistic interactions (e.g., pollination, seed dispersal, ant-plant associations), and interactions involving multiple species across trophic levels.

Behaviour, ecology, genetics and life history theory in the study of the evolution of sex, mate choice, sexual competition, sex ratio, hermaphroditism, age at maturity, fecundity, parental care and alternative strategies. Examples may be drawn from nonhuman animals, plants or fungi and highlight the research focus of the instructor.

An examination of the Gene-Environment Interplay perspective as sources of individual differences in behaviour, from both mechanistic and evolutionary viewpoints. Both historical and recent studies are used to illustrate important concepts in the field. Student-led discussions address the evidence base for these concepts.

A focus on theoretical population genetics, using mathematical models to understand how different evolutionary forces drive allele frequency change. Students learn how to mathematically derive classic results in population genetics. Topics include drift, coalescence, the relationship between population and quantitative genetics, selection in finite populations, and mutation load. Offered in alternate years; next offered in 2018-19.

Processes of evolution at the molecular level, and the analysis of molecular data. Gene structure, neutrality, nucleotide sequence evolution, sequence evolution, sequence alignment, phylogeny construction, gene families, transposition.

The Tree of Life metaphor for evolutionary relationships among species, phylogenies, is now fundamental in biology. Phylogenetic trees are now used both in species classification and to investigate myriad biological hypotheses about the evolutionary process and applied problems like virus and cancer epidemiology. This course will train students in the concepts and core methods of phylogenetic tree inference, including parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian techniques. Students will gain bioinformatics skills with application to DNA sequence analysis and phylogenetic tree inference. Through a combination of lectures, discussion, and computer labs, students will master theory and practice of phylogenetic tree construction and inference.

Biodiversity in the Anthropocene. This course links the biological and social sciences to identify human goals for future biodiversity, methods to achieve this biodiversity, and to understand key issues such as the end of the wild, ecosystem services as a unit of conservation, animal welfare as a moral responsibility, and GMOs as biodiversity. Practical training may be provided in identifying species at risk, and in applying ecological-economics to trade-off decisions.

This course uses the collections, research, and public gallery areas of the Royal Ontario Museum to expose students to the ways in which biodiversity is discovered, analyzed, and interpreted in a museum setting. Topics include: morphological and molecular approaches, taxonomy, classification, bioinformatics and e-taxonomy, and the interpretation of biodiversity for the public. Labs include student projects and a one-day field trip on a weekend (cost about $15).

This course is taken concurrently by students who are enrolled in EEB498Y1 Advanced Research Project in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and uses a combination of seminars, discussions, and presentations (including presentations by students) designed to cover issues commonly encountered when conducting research in ecology and evolutionary biology. Topics may include experimental design, effective use of statistics, scientific writing and publishing, public communication, ethics, and career development. Students will be required to attend weekly departmental seminars. This half-course runs from September to April and lectures meet in alternate weeks.

Seminar course in biodiversity and conservation biology, emphasizing critical thinking and the synthesis of ideas crossing disciplinary boundaries. Group discussions among peers, facilitated by faculty, and student presentations. Discussions include critical analysis of research and review articles in the primary literature, with a focus on recent developments in biodiversity science and conservation biology. Evaluation based on presentations, participation in class discussions, and written assignments. (Note students may take this course only once.)

Seminar course in ecology and evolutionary biology, emphasizing critical thinking and the synthesis of ideas crossing disciplinary boundaries. Group discussions among peers, facilitated by faculty, and student presentations. Discussions include critical analysis of research and review articles in the primary literature. Evaluation based on presentations, participation in class discussions, and written assignments. (Note students may take this course only once.)

An independent studies half-course allowing students to produce a literature review, which is supervised by a faculty member in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Highly motivated fourth-year students will work closely with a supervisor and be required to write up the results of their research in a final research paper. Students should contact a potential supervisor well before classes begin in the fall, winter, or summer session. Information on how to apply for the course is available on the EEB website. Students cannot take more than two independent research courses of EEB 497H1, 498Y1, and 499Y1, and the second project must be with a different supervisor. Students who apply to EEB497H1 in the fall session can also apply to enrol concurrently in EEB488H1Y. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

An advanced research project (a literature review alone is not sufficient) requiring the prior consent of a member of the Department to supervise the project. The topic is to be one mutually agreed on by the student and supervisor. They must arrange the time, place, and provision of any materials and submit to the Undergraduate Office a signed form of agreement outlining details prior to being enrolled. This course is normally open only to highly self-motivated students who are in their Fourth-Year and have adequate background in ecology and/or evolutionary biology. Students are required to write up the results of their research in a formal paper, often in the format of a research article, and are also required to present the results at a poster session and/or oral presentation. The time commitment is approximately 8 hours per week. Students should contact their potential supervisors over the summer before classes begin in September. Information regarding how to register for the course is available on the EEB website. Students in this course are also concurrently enrolled in EEB488H1Y Research Issues in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.

Allows students to do another independent project, supervision of which must be different from EEB497H1/EEB498Y1. Operates in the same manner as EEB498Y1. Not eligible for CR/NCR option.